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Table 1 Studies self-identifying as natural experiments which met inclusion criteria

From: Using natural experiments to improve public health evidence: a review of context and utility for obesity prevention

Author, year

Geography

Type

Exposure

Exposed group

Unexposed group

Intervention outcome

Study design

Primary data

Allais et al., 2015 [27]

France

P

Food labelling

Consumers of supermarket stores

No control group (pre exposure)

Sale of healthy

food items

Interrupted time series

No

Barlow et al., 2017 [28]

Canada

P

Tariff/trade agreement

Residents in country with tax on sugar sweeteners

Residents in countries with no tax on sugar sweeteners

Sales of sugar foods/beverage

Pre/post cohort + control

No

Barradas et al., 2017 [29]

Colombia

C

PA programme (park based)

Residents near park with PA programme

Residents near parks without programme;

with existing programme

Quality of life

Post only

Yes

Bernatchez et al., 2015 [30]

Canada

E

Bike share programme

City residents near bike-share docks

City residents further from bike-share docks

Programme awareness

Repeated cross-sectional

Yes

Brandt et al., 2017 [31]

United States

P

Food regulation

Residents in counties with TFA restrictions

Residents in counties with no TFA restrictions

Hospital admission for cardiovascular events

Pre/post cohort + control

No

Cawley et al., 2007 [32]

United States

P

PE education

Students in high schools with PE requirements

Students in high schools without PE requirements

PA, weight

Post only

No

Cawley et al., 2010 [33]

United States

P

Social welfare benefit

Elderly receiving inflated social security benefits

No control group (variation in exposure)

Weight

Repeated cross-sectional

No

Christian et al., 2013 [34]

Australia

E

Built environment

(housing relocation)

Residents in a PA-supportive neighbourhood

residents in conventional or hybrid neighbourhood

Walking

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Christian et al., 2017 [35]

Australia

E

Built environment (housing relocation)

Residents in a new neighbourhood

No control group

Walking

Pre/post cohort

Yes

Cohen et al., 2012 [36]

United States

E

Green space (outdoor gym equipment)

Park users in parks with new fitness equipment

Park users in parks without equipment

PA METs

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Cornelsen et al., 2017 [37]

United Kingdom

P

Tax (sugar)

Customers of restaurant chain

No control group (pre exposure)

Sugar-sweetened beverage sales

Interrupted time series

No

Cranney et al., 2016 [38]

Australia

E

Green space

(outdoor gym equipment)

Park users in parks with new fitness equipment

No control group (pre exposure)

PA

Repeated cross-sectional;

qualitative interviews

Yes

Datar & Nicosia, 2017 [39]

United States

P

Restricted access unhealthy food

Children living in states with school policies on discretionary foods

Children in states without policies

BMI

Post only

No

Dill et al., 2014 [40]

United States

E

Built environment (bicycle infrastructure)

Residents in streets with bike paths

Residents near streets without paths

PA/AT

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Dubowitz et al., 2015 [41]

United States

E

Food environment (access to healthy food outlet)

Residents in neighbourhoods with no full-service supermarket

No control group (baseline data only)

Healthy food purchases

Pre only

Yes

Elbel et al., 2011 [42]

United States

P

Food labelling

Consumers (low-income kids/teens) of fast-food outlets in city with mandatory food labelling

Consumers (low-income kids/teens) of fast-food outlets in city with no food labelling

Food consumption - fast food

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Ferguson et al., 2017 [43]

Australia

p

Food affordability (pricing)

Residents in remote Aboriginal communities

No control group (variation in exposure)

F&V, general food/beverage sales

Interrupted time series; repeat cross-sectional;

Qualitative interviews

Mixed

Frew et al., 2014 [44]

United Kingdom

C

PA programme (access to services)

City residents with limited access to free PA services

Hypothetical (as if there was no free access)

PA-related diseases, QALYS

Pre/post cohort

Yes

Fu & VanLandingham, 2012 [45]

United States

O

Migration

Vietnamese immigrants in America

Vietnamese immigrant returnees and native (never-leavers)

BMI, waist-hip circumference

Post only

Yes

Gee et al., 2015 [46]

United States

O

Migration

Filipinos in America

Native Filipinos

BMI, waist-hip circumference

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Giles-Corti et al., 2013 [47]

Australia

E

Built environment

(housing relocation)

Residents in a PA-supportive neighbourhood

residents in conventional or hybrid neighbourhood

AT and recreational PA

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Hobin et al., 2017 [48]

Canada

P

Food labelling

Consumers of supermarkets with nutrition labelling

Consumers of supermarkets without nutrition labelling

Sale of healthy

food items

Pre/post cohort + control;

qualitative interviews

Mixed

Jancey et al., 2016 [49]

Australia

E

Built environment (workplaces)

Office workers move to new building

No control group (pre exposure)

PA

Repeated cross-sectional

Yes

Jones-Smith et al., 2017 [50]

United States

O

Economic resources (casino developments)

Native American new-borns born in area near casinos (greater resources)

Native American new-borns near no casino (lower resources)

Birth weight (childhood obesity)

Repeated cross-sectional

No

Jürges et al., 2011 [51]

Germany

P

Education reform (years educated)

Country population years of education

No control (variation in exposure)

Overweight, obesity, smoking

Repeated cross-sectional

No

Kapinos et al., 2017 [52]

United States

O

Clinical (fetal mal-presentation at birth delivery)

Mothers who deliver by caesarean birth

Mothers who deliver by vaginal birth

Mothers’ postpartum BMI

Pre/post cohort + control

No

Kesten et al., 2014 [53]

United Kingdom

E

Built environment (AT infrastructure)

Commuters in neighbourhoods proximal to AT infrastructure

No control group (pre exposure)

Awareness of AT infrastructure

Qualitative interviews; media

Mixed

Kodish et al., 2016 [54]

United States

O

Economic resources (casino ownership)

Native American tribal communities with casino ownership profit

Tribal communities with little/no cash profit

Access to healthy food, PA facilities, etc.

Qualitative interviews

Yes

Lee et al., 2017 [55]

United States

E

Built environment (transfer to local school)

Students transferred to local school

No control group (recall pre exposure)

AT participation

Post only

Yes

Madsen, 2011 [56]

United States

P

Clinical (health (BMI) screening optional notification)

Students in schools with screening-notified parents

Students in schools with screening not notified

BMI

Repeated cross-sectional; qualitative interviews

No

Odoms-Young et al., 2014 [57]

United States

P

Food access (change to nutritional content of welfare food package)

Low-income families receiving food security packages

No control group (pre exposure)

Dietary intake,

Body weight

Pre/post cohort

Yes

Ovrum et al., 2014 [58]

Norway

P

Food access (healthy food)

Families of children whose schools give free F&V

Families of children who do not have F&V programme or have optional programme

F&V consumption

Post only

Yes

Pollack et al., 2014 [59]

United States

P

Social housing

Public housing residents in scattered housing

Public housing residents in clustered housing

Diet, PA behaviour, BMI, perceived health

Post only

Yes

Ram et al., 2016 [60]

United Kingdom

E

Social housing

City residents from different housing sectors

No control group (baseline data only)

PA, BMI, self-reported health

Pre only

Yes

Sadler et al., 2013 [61]

United States

E

Food environment (access to healthy food outlet)

Residents in neighbourhoods with new supermarket

Residents in neighbourhood with no supermarket

F&V intake, food security

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Schultz et al., 2017 [62]

United States

E

Built environment (street redesign)

Low-income neighbourhood residents

No control group (pre exposure)

PA, park usage

Repeated cross-sectional

Yes

Simões et al., 2017 [63]

Brazil

C

PA programme (community)

Cities participating in the programme

Non-participatory and not-yet-participatory cities

PA

Pre/post cohort + control (step wedge)

Yes

Stanley et al., 2016 [64]

Canada

E

Public transport strike

University students using public transport and other transport modes

No control group (pre-exposure)

PA, AT participation

Pre/post cohort

Mixed

Stone et al., 2012 [65]

Canada

P

PA programme (school curriculum)

Primary students in school with daily PA policy (mandatory minimum PA minutes)

Primary students in school without PA curriculum

PA, BMI

Post only

Yes

Sutherland et al., 2010 [66]

United States

P

Food labelling

Consumers of supermarkets with shelf nutrition labelling

No control group (variation in exposure)

Sale of healthy food items

Interrupted time series

No

Torres et al., 2017 [67]

Colombia

C

PA programme (park-based)

Residents near park with new PA programme

Residents near parks without programme or

with established programme

MVPA

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Tudor-Locke et al., 2008 [68]

Australia

E

Built environment (housing relocation)

Residents relocating home within a metropolitan area

No control group (pre exposure)

PA

Pre/post cohort

Yes

Veitch et al., 2012 [69]

Australia

E

Green space

Users of a refurbished park

Users an un-furbished park

PA, park usage

Pre/post cohort + control

Yes

Wagner et al., 2013 [70]

United States

C

Social living arrangements

Student at a university

No control group (variation in exposure)

Various health behaviours (PA; alcohol)

Post only

No

Watson et al., 2016 [71]

Canada

P

Economic (change in unemployment benefits)

Adult workforce population

No control group (variation in exposure)

Obesity

Pre/post cohort

No

Zick, 2014 [72]

United States

P

Daylight savings scheme

Residents in states with daylight savings

Residents in states with no daylight savings

MVPA

Pre/post cohort + control

No

  1. AT active travel, BMI body mass index, C community intervention, E environmental intervention, F&V fruit and vegetable intake, METs metabolic equivalent expenditures, MVPA moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, O other, P policy, PA physical activity, PE physical education, QALYs quality-adjusted life years, TFA trans-fatty acid