Table 5 Juxtaposition of the ‘social capital’ domain and sub-domains of Norris et al.’s [18] framework with Patel et al.’s [19] and Kruse et al.’s [20] elements for community resilience
Norris framework | Patel framework | Kruse framework | Example of primary indicators | Dynamic attributes of indicators (Robust, Redundant, Rapid) • Robust: resistant to depletion • Redundant: substitutable • Rapid: can be readily accessed | Positive health trajectory? Whether indicator shows positive influences on health outcomes and the equity of those outcomes | |||
Domains | Sub-domains | Elements that relate to the Norris’ domain and sub-domains | Description of elements that relate to the domain and/or sub-domain | Elements that relate to Norris’s domain and sub-domains | Description of elements that relate to the domain and/or sub-domain | |||
Social Capital | Network Structures and Linkages | Community networks and relationships | Encompasses the connectedness of community members during a crisis Connectedness, also called ‘social network’ can be examined through linkages within a community | Not applicable | Not applicable | National platform participation: Participation by type and objective of NGOs, civil society, volunteers and the private sector in community platforms [41] | National platform participation: not robust or redundant but rapid Level of participation by various groups might dwindle in crisis situations due to disability and deaths during disasters; therefore, it is not resistant to depletion (not robust); participation of these groups is not substitutable either as their coalition would be important to tap into different strengths and resources to respond to crisis situations (not redundant); participation can be readily accessed as these groups are present in the community (rapid) | Yes |
Civic organisations: Number of civic organisations per 10,000 population [42] | Civic organisations: not robust or redundant but rapid While the number of civic organisations that are registered might not dwindle, those in leadership and management may deplete due to disability and deaths, which would make the organisations defunct (not robust); these civic organisations are not substitutable either as they might be important to deliver resources and provide relief during crises situation (not redundant); however, participation can be readily accessed either as these organisations are present in the community (rapid) | No | ||||||
Community bond | Community networks and relationships | Includes cohesiveness, which can be based on community linkages and are described as weak or strong ties; factors like trust and shared values can improve ties | Not applicable | Not application | Community participation: Proportion of individuals who actively engage in community-based associations or events, e.g. farmers’ association and new harvest celebration in the agrarian community [33] | Community participation: not robust, redundant or rapid Community participation may wax and wane depending on living conditions and sentiments of individuals that are members of that community (not robust) and such participation is not substitutable by other kinds of activities (not redundant); it takes time to develop the relationships that lead to such participation or access their benefits in a time of a crisis (not rapid) | No | |
Social Support | Social support | Includes assistance such as food and monetary that individuals are able to draw upon from informal networks, e.g. family and friends | Domain: Action Element: Social protection | Includes various actions that provide community members with the resources necessary to improve their living standards; success of social protection mechanisms is dependent on the strength of social support systems, including the presence of an active community-based voluntary sector capable of providing social support at times of disaster | Family support: proportion of individuals willing to provide food and monetary support to non-close family members [43] | Family support: not robust but redundant and rapid Family support may be depleted, especially if those family members are also facing adverse situations (not robust), but can be substituted or augmented with support from formal networks, e.g. relief and humanitarian organisations (redundant) and can be rapidly accessed in time of a crisis (rapid) | No | |
Voluntary workers: Percentage of voluntary workers for an organisation or group (persons over 15) [44] | Voluntary workers: not robust or redundant but rapid Similar to other human resources, voluntary workers for an organisation or group might dwindle during crisis situations due to death and disability (not robust); volunteers are not substitutable given their importance in relief efforts during crisis and rebuilding afterward (not redundant); similar to other human resources, volunteers (those who are not directly affected by the crisis) could be readily accessed since they are present in the community (rapid) | No | ||||||
Community Bonds, Roots and Commitments | Community networks and relationships | Includes community linkages that are determined by trust and shared values; these conceptually focus on bonding, bridging and linking | Domain: Resources and capacities Element: Socio-political | Relates to the importance of political, social and power dynamics of community members; refers to lateral relationships between family, friends and informal networks as well as formal membership groups with institutional hierarchies | Vulnerable people inclusion: Number of vulnerable (e.g. marginalised) people included in formal and informal networks [45] | Vulnerable people inclusion: not robust or redundant but rapid See the explanation above for “percentage of households with women and marginalised groups involved in local planning processes [37]” indicator above | Yes | |