Table 1 Steps of DISCOVER and the associated aims, objectives, suggested methods and references

D—Create a DATABASE of stakeholders

To systematically map the network of people and organisations operating around the issue

D1. Establish an exhaustive database of stakeholders interested in the problem

D2. Collect information about all organisations and how they work together

D3. Produce a network map from this database using mapping software

A systematic search of stakeholders, incorporating brainstorming, web mapping searches, networking events, social media, engaging with experts, and using existing contacts [42]

Collect socio-metric data through an online survey asking all stakeholders about their network [44]

Network mapping and analysis to visualise relationships between people in a network, showing who the actors are, how they are related and how these relationships are characterised [43]

I—IDENTIFY appropriate participants

To identify a representative sample of individuals to participate in systems mapping sessions

I1. Devise a checklist for purposeful sampling

I2. Use this checklist to identify and select participants for the co-creation sessions

Use purposeful sampling and stratify by the Quadruple Helix Model [35], social network analysis [44] and the breadth of expertise required to respond to the complex issue [35]

S—Bring identified participants together to SHARE their experiences and expertise

To share knowledge and evidence on the problem

S1. The identified individuals meet within a co-creation session (in person or virtually) facilitated by a researcher

S2. Researchers conduct variable elicitation

S3. Researchers document the origin of all data so that there is transparency

Identified participants are invited to a participatory mapping session. These can follow Group Model Building scripts [28] and/or Participatory Systems Mapping guides [4]

C—Participants CONNECT their ideas through a systems mapping exercise

To connect ideas and explore relationships between variables

C1. Participants Connect variables

Construct an inter-relationship digraph (IRD) [45,46,47]. Participants are invited to connect elicited variables as appropriate

O—OPERATIONALISE this map so that it is usable and depicts the full system

To operationalise the system map so that it is actionable

O1. Researchers analyse the IRD and identify drivers and outcomes

O2. Researchers operationalise the IRD into a Causal Loop Diagrams using a software package

Researchers dissect the connections and look to refine and operationalise the model to be operational for decision-making [47]

Researchers develop Causal Loop Diagrams [48] using packages like Vensim, Stella, KUMU, STICKE, among others

V—VALIDATE the map with those involved in its creation and with other stakeholders

To validate the trustworthiness of the systems map with participants

V1. Member-check the operationalised map with stakeholders to test clarity, ensure an accurate representation of relationships and check for missing information

Researchers member check with participants [25]

Use Guba and Lincoln’s framework for ensuring trustworthiness and rigour in qualitative primary data collection, which assesses research on four criteria: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability [49]

E—Bring decision-makers together to test the map and see actions EVOLVE

The map and action ideas evolve through scenario building and stress testing

E1. Researchers identify key leverage points in the system using network analysis and narrative analysis

Leverage points signal areas where we can intervene in a system to bring about positive change. Such engagement can stimulate new forms of action to propose ambitious changes in complex situations [50]

R—RESPOND to the complex problem by collectively developing a set of recommendations

To respond to the problem with an action plan

R1. Co-create an action plan, a shared vision, to respond to the problem

R2. Identify common, measurable action points and create pathways for increased future collaboration

R3. Use the action plan as evidence to shape policy

Can adapt the ‘Action Ideas’ script from Scriptapedia to discuss potential interventions in the system and areas of action [51]

Use co-creation methods with influential stakeholders and decision makers to develop the action plan, based on the evidence from the systems map [52]